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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Arbitrary code execution</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Remote code execution" redirects here. For the science fiction novel, see <a href="RCE_-_Remote_Code_Execution" title="RCE - Remote Code Execution">RCE - Remote Code Execution</a>.</div>

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<p>In <a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">computer security</a>, <b>arbitrary code execution</b> (<b>ACE</b>) is an attacker's ability to run any commands or code of the attacker's choice on a target machine or in a target <a href="Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">process</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <b>arbitrary code execution <a href="Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">vulnerability</a></b> is a security flaw in <a href="Software" title="Software">software</a> or hardware allowing arbitrary code execution. A program that is designed to exploit such a vulnerability is called an <b>arbitrary code execution <a href="Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">exploit</a></b>. The ability to trigger arbitrary code execution over a network (especially via a wide-area network such as the Internet) is often referred to as <b>remote code execution</b> (<b>RCE</b> or <b>RCX</b>).

</p><p>Arbitrary code execution signifies that if someone sends a specially designed set of data to a computer, they can make it do whatever they want. Even though this particular weakness may not cause actual problems in the real world, researchers have discussed whether it suggests a natural tendency for computers to have vulnerabilities that allow unauthorized code execution.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vulnerability_types">Vulnerability types</h2></div>

<p>There are a number of classes of vulnerability that can lead to an attacker's ability to execute arbitrary commands or code. For example:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Memory_safety" title="Memory safety">Memory safety</a> vulnerabilities such as <a href="Buffer_overflow" title="Buffer overflow">buffer overflows</a> or <a href="Buffer_over-read" title="Buffer over-read">over-reads</a>.</li>

<li>Deserialization vulnerabilities<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Type confusion vulnerabilities<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

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</style><span class="monospaced"><a href="Ldd_(Unix)" title="Ldd (Unix)">ldd</a></span> arbitrary code execution<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2></div>

<p>Arbitrary code execution is commonly achieved through control over the <a href="Instruction_pointer" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction pointer">instruction pointer</a> (such as a jump or a <a href="Branch_(computer_science)" title="Branch (computer science)">branch</a>) of a running <a href="Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">process</a>. The instruction pointer points to the next instruction in the process that will be executed. Control over the value of the instruction pointer therefore gives control over which instruction is executed next. In order to execute arbitrary code, many exploits <a href="Code_injection" title="Code injection">inject code</a> into the process (for example by sending input to it which gets stored in an <a href="Data_buffer" title="Data buffer">input buffer</a> in <a href="Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a>) and use a vulnerability to change the instruction pointer to have it point to the injected code. The injected code will then automatically get executed. This type of attack exploits the fact that most computers (which use a <a href="Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">Von Neumann architecture</a>) do not make a general distinction between <a href="Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">code and data</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so that malicious code can be camouflaged as harmless input data. Many newer CPUs have mechanisms to make this harder, such as a <a href="No-execute_bit" class="mw-redirect" title="No-execute bit">no-execute bit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Combining_with_privilege_escalation">Combining with privilege escalation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Privilege_escalation" title="Privilege escalation">Privilege escalation</a></div>

<p>On its own, an arbitrary code execution exploit will give the attacker the same <a href="Privilege_(computing)" title="Privilege (computing)">privileges</a> as the target process that is vulnerable.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if exploiting a flaw in a <a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browser</a>, an attacker could act as the user, performing actions such as modifying personal computer files or accessing banking information, but would not be able to perform system-level actions (unless the user in question also had that access).

</p><p>To work around this, once an attacker can execute arbitrary code on a target, there is often an attempt at a <a href="Privilege_escalation" title="Privilege escalation">privilege escalation</a> exploit in order to gain additional control. This may involve the <a href="Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">kernel</a> itself or an account such as Administrator, SYSTEM, or root. With or without this enhanced control, exploits have the potential to do severe damage or turn the computer into a <a href="Zombie_(computing)" title="Zombie (computing)">zombie</a>—but privilege escalation helps with hiding the attack from the legitimate administrator of the system.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<p><a href="Retrogaming" class="mw-redirect" title="Retrogaming">Retrogaming</a> hobbyists have managed to find vulnerabilities in classic video games that allow them to execute arbitrary code, usually using a precise sequence of button inputs in a <a href="Tool-assisted_superplay" class="mw-redirect" title="Tool-assisted superplay">tool-assisted superplay</a> to cause a <a href="Buffer_overflow" title="Buffer overflow">buffer overflow</a>, allowing them to write to <a href="Protected_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Protected memory">protected memory</a>. At <a href="Awesome_Games_Done_Quick" class="mw-redirect" title="Awesome Games Done Quick">Awesome Games Done Quick 2014</a>, a group of <a href="Speedrunning" title="Speedrunning">speedrunners</a> managed to code and run versions of the games <i><a href="Pong" title="Pong">Pong</a></i>, <i><a href="Snake_(video_game_genre)" title="Snake (video game genre)">Snake</a></i> and <i><a href="Super_Mario_Bros." title="Super Mario Bros.">Super Mario Bros.</a></i> on a copy of <i><a href="Super_Mario_World" title="Super Mario World">Super Mario World</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by utilizing an out-of-bounds read of a function pointer that points to a user controlled buffer to execute arbitrary code.

</p><p>On June 12, 2018, Bosnian security researcher Jean-Yves Avenard of <a href="Mozilla" title="Mozilla">Mozilla</a> discovered an ACE vulnerability in <a href="Windows_10" title="Windows 10">Windows 10</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>On May 1, 2018, a security researcher discovered an ACE vulnerability in the <a href="7-Zip" title="7-Zip">7-Zip</a> <a href="File_archiver" title="File archiver">file archiver</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a> has been the subject of numerous ACE vulnerabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>On December 9, 2021, an RCE vulnerability called "<a href="Log4Shell" title="Log4Shell">Log4Shell</a>" was discovered in popular <a href="Logging_(computing)" title="Logging (computing)">logging</a> framework <a href="Log4j" title="Log4j">Log4j</a>, affecting many services including <a href="ICloud" title="ICloud">iCloud</a>, <i><a href="Minecraft%3A_Java_Edition" class="mw-redirect" title="Minecraft: Java Edition">Minecraft: Java Edition</a></i> and <a href="Steam_(service)" title="Steam (service)">Steam</a>, and characterized as "the single biggest, most critical vulnerability of the last decade".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="BlueKeep" title="BlueKeep">BlueKeep</a></li>

<li><a href="Follina_(security_vulnerability)" class="mw-redirect" title="Follina (security vulnerability)">Follina (security vulnerability)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-12934">"NVD - CVE-2017-12934"</a>. <i>nvd.nist.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-31</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/3853213/us-18-Thomas-It's-A-PHP-Unserialization-Vulnerability-Jim-But-Not-As-We-....pdf?">"File Operation Induced Unserialization via the "phar://" Stream Wrapper"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Secarma Labs</i>. 2018.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-12933">"NVD - CVE-2017-12933"</a>. <i>nvd.nist.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-31</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2021/12/minecraft-and-other-apps-face-serious-threat-from-new-code-execution-bug/">"Zeroday in ubiquitous Log4j tool poses a grave threat to the Internet"</a>. <i><a href="Ars_Technica" title="Ars Technica">Ars Technica</a></i>. December 9, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/dec/10/software-flaw-most-critical-vulnerability-log-4-shell">"Recently uncovered software flaw 'most critical vulnerability of the last decade'"</a>. <i><a href="The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. 11 December 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFSommestadHolmEkstedt2012" class="citation journal cs1">Sommestad, Teodor; Holm, Hannes; Ekstedt, Mathias (June 2012). "Estimates of success rates of remote arbitrary code execution attacks". <i>Information Management & Computer Security</i>. <b>20</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">107–</span>122. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F09685221211235625">10.1108/09685221211235625</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSunHanLiHuang2024" class="citation journal cs1">Sun, Enbo; Han, Jiaxuan; Li, Yiquan; Huang, Cheng (2 July 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Ffi16070235">"A Packet Content-Oriented Remote Code Execution Attack Payload Detection Model"</a>. <i>Future Internet</i>. <b>16</b> (7): 235. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Ffi16070235">10.3390/fi16070235</a></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJancewiczKiayiasMichelRussell2013" class="citation book cs1">Jancewicz, Russell J.; Kiayias, Aggelos; Michel, Laurent D.; Russell, Alexander C.; Shvartsman, Alexander A. (2013). "Malicious takeover of voting systems: Arbitrary code execution on optical scan voting terminals". <i>Proceedings of the 28th Annual ACM Symposium on Applied Computing</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1816–</span>1823. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2480362.2480702">10.1145/2480362.2480702</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4503-1656-9</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Information_security92" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Threat_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Threat (computer)">Threats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adware" title="Adware">Adware</a></li>

<li><a href="Advanced_persistent_threat" title="Advanced persistent threat">Advanced persistent threat</a></li>

<li><a href="Backdoor_(computing)" title="Backdoor (computing)">Backdoors</a></li>

<li>Bombs

<li><a href="Logic_bomb" title="Logic bomb">Logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_backdoor" title="Hardware backdoor">Hardware backdoors</a></li>

<li><a href="Code_injection" title="Code injection">Code injection</a></li>

<li><a href="Crimeware" title="Crimeware">Crimeware</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-site_scripting" title="Cross-site scripting">Cross-site scripting</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-site_leaks" title="Cross-site leaks">Cross-site leaks</a></li>

<li><a href="DOM_clobbering" title="DOM clobbering">DOM clobbering</a></li>

<li><a href="History_sniffing" title="History sniffing">History sniffing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptojacking" title="Cryptojacking">Cryptojacking</a></li>

<li><a href="Botnet" title="Botnet">Botnets</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_breach" title="Data breach">Data breach</a></li>

<li><a href="Drive-by_download" title="Drive-by download">Drive-by download</a></li>

<li><a href="Browser_Helper_Object" title="Browser Helper Object">Browser Helper Objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">Viruses</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_scraping" title="Data scraping">Data scraping</a></li>

<li><a href="Denial-of-service_attack" title="Denial-of-service attack">Denial-of-service attack</a></li>

<li><a href="Eavesdropping" title="Eavesdropping">Eavesdropping</a></li>

<li><a href="Email_fraud" title="Email fraud">Email fraud</a></li>

<li><a href="Email_spoofing" title="Email spoofing">Email spoofing</a></li>

<li><a href="Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">Exploits</a></li>

<li><a href="Dialer#Fraudulent_dialer" title="Dialer">Fraudulent dialers</a></li>

<li><a href="Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">Hacktivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Infostealer" title="Infostealer">Infostealer</a></li>

<li><a href="Insecure_direct_object_reference" title="Insecure direct object reference">Insecure direct object reference</a></li>

<li><a href="Keystroke_logging" title="Keystroke logging">Keystroke loggers</a></li>

<li><a href="Malware" title="Malware">Malware</a></li>

<li><a href="Payload_(computing)" title="Payload (computing)">Payload</a></li>

<li><a href="Phishing" title="Phishing">Phishing</a>

<ul><li><a href="Voice_phishing" title="Voice phishing">Voice</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Polymorphic_engine" title="Polymorphic engine">Polymorphic engine</a></li>

<li><a href="Privilege_escalation" title="Privilege escalation">Privilege escalation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li>

<li><a href="Rootkit" title="Rootkit">Rootkits</a></li>

<li><a href="Scareware" title="Scareware">Scareware</a></li>

<li><a href="Shellcode" title="Shellcode">Shellcode</a></li>

<li><a href="Spamming" title="Spamming">Spamming</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">Social engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Spyware" title="Spyware">Spyware</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_bug" title="Software bug">Software bugs</a></li>

<li><a href="Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horses</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_Trojan" title="Hardware Trojan">Hardware Trojans</a></li>

<li><a href="Remote_access_trojan" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote access trojan">Remote access trojans</a></li>

<li><a href="Vulnerability_(computer_security)" title="Vulnerability (computer security)">Vulnerability</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_shell" title="Web shell">Web shells</a></li>

<li><a href="Wiper_(malware)" title="Wiper (malware)">Wiper</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">Worms</a></li>

<li><a href="SQL_injection" title="SQL injection">SQL injection</a></li>

<li><a href="Rogue_security_software" title="Rogue security software">Rogue security software</a></li>

<li><a href="Zombie_(computing)" title="Zombie (computing)">Zombie</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defenses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a>

<ul><li><a href="Secure_coding" title="Secure coding">Secure coding</a></li>

<li>Secure by default</li>

<li><a href="Secure_by_design" title="Secure by design">Secure by design</a>

<ul><li><a href="Misuse_case" title="Misuse case">Misuse case</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Computer_access_control" title="Computer access control">Computer access control</a>

<ul><li><a href="Authentication" title="Authentication">Authentication</a>

<ul><li><a href="Multi-factor_authentication" title="Multi-factor authentication">Multi-factor authentication</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Authorization" title="Authorization">Authorization</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Computer_security_software" title="Computer security software">Computer security software</a>

<ul><li><a href="Antivirus_software" title="Antivirus software">Antivirus software</a></li>

<li><a href="Security-focused_operating_system" title="Security-focused operating system">Security-focused operating system</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Data-centric_security" title="Data-centric security">Data-centric security</a></li>

<li><a href="Obfuscation_(software)" title="Obfuscation (software)">Software obfuscation</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_masking" title="Data masking">Data masking</a></li>

<li><a href="Encryption" title="Encryption">Encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Firewall_(computing)" title="Firewall (computing)">Firewall</a></li>

<li><a href="Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a>

<ul><li><a href="Host-based_intrusion_detection_system" title="Host-based intrusion detection system">Host-based intrusion detection system</a> (HIDS)</li>

<li><a href="Anomaly_detection" title="Anomaly detection">Anomaly detection</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Information_security_management" title="Information security management">Information security management</a>

<ul><li><a href="Information_risk_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Information risk management">Information risk management</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_information_and_event_management" title="Security information and event management">Security information and event management</a> (SIEM)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Runtime_application_self-protection" title="Runtime application self-protection">Runtime application self-protection</a></li>

<li><a href="Site_isolation" title="Site isolation">Site isolation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br>security<br>topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a></li>

<li><a href="Automotive_security" title="Automotive security">Automotive security</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">Cybercrime</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cybersex_trafficking" title="Cybersex trafficking">Cybersex trafficking</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_fraud" title="Computer fraud">Computer fraud</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cybergeddon" title="Cybergeddon">Cybergeddon</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_warfare" title="Electronic warfare">Electronic warfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information warfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet_security" title="Internet security">Internet security</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_security" title="Mobile security">Mobile security</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li>

<li><a href="Copy_protection" title="Copy protection">Copy protection</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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